Portugal - carnation revolution
Mural on the occasion of the 25th anniversary of the revolution
[Some formatting was lost in this translation of a document from the original Polish "Portugalia -rewolucja goździków " . Hopefully it is complete. rcb 7/31/2022]
The Carnation Revolution (port. Revolução dos Cravos () was a military coup d'état in Portugal in 1974. The coup led to the overthrow of the dictateof the turn of António Salazar's successor – Marcel Caetan. As a consequence, civil and political freedoms were restored and Portuguese possessions in Africa and Asia were decolonized.
The course of the coup
The coup took place on April 25, 1974. Left-wing officers associated in the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) were responsible for its organization and implementation – the organization gathered mainly young captains, but the patronage over them was taken by Francisco da Costa Gomes and António de Spínola. Two thousand soldiers directly participated in the action commanded by Otelo Saraiva de Carvalho. The conspirators seized the general staff, the seat of government, radio and television located in Lisbon and Porto. Prime Minister Marcelo Caetano took refuge in the barracks of the Republican Guard. After he admitted that he did not meet anyone who wanted to fight in defense of the government, he surrendered himself to the putschists.[3][2] The coup was carried out peacefully, and the only victims were four citizens shot by political police officers during the siegeand headquarters of PIDE. The organizers of the coup were massively supported by citizens who took to the streets in a gesture of support for the army. As a token of gratitude, the inhabitants of Lisbon handed the soldiers white and red carnations. Flowers stuck in the barrels of carabiners became a symbol of revolution.
Revolutionary rule
The military formed the Council of National Salvation and a provisional government, and abolished the main institutions of the overthrown dictatorship. General de Spínola became president and chairman of the Council of National Salvation. The military announced elections to the constituent assembly for 1975.[3][1] Radical leftist and anti-colonial views were very popular in society. Public sentiment was therefore rather unfavorable to the conservative de Spínoli, who remained a supporter of the creation of a broad confederation of Portugal and its overseas colonies.[1][3] In September, the unpopular general resigned.[5][1][3] and was replaced by Costa Gomes.[3]
Since September, the government has been led by the extreme left, including the Communists, who have been appointed prime minister and four ministers. Under her rule, Portugal granted independence to Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau[3],...[3] to Saint Tomé and Príncipe, Cape Verde and East Timor (soon attacked and annexed by Indonesia)[6] . This course of affairs was opposed by Spínol, who in March organised an unsuccessful coup attempt (its failure resulted from a lack of support – the putschists were attacked by the inhabitants of the capital[1]). This attempt led to a further strengthening of radical leftists. The radical wing of the MFA took the upper hand in the military Revolutionary Council. The radical military implemented a series of far-reaching changes: the nationalization of banks, big industry, transportation, and energy. Land reform has begun.[3][1]
The constituent elections announced by the army took place on 25 April 1975[3]. The victory was won by the moderate parties – the Socialist Party (38%) and the centre-right (12%)[3]. The triumph of moderate forces was confirmed by the demonstrations that swept the conservative north of the country during the summer[3]. After the electoral success of the moderate forces, Major Ernesto Augusto de Melo Antunes, who remained an ally of the Socialists, led to the resignation of the far-left government. Socialists and moderate right-wingers entered the new cabinet[3].
On November 25, 1975, there was an unsuccessful attempt to revolt soldiers associated with the left-wing MFA.[3] In 1976, a new constitution was adopted and parliamentary and presidential elections were held. The Constitution ensured a balance of power between the elected bodiesand the Revolutionary Council (which existed until 1982). The elections were won by the Socialists and the first constitutional government was headed by Mario Soares. The president of republik was António Ramalho Eanes.[3] The president led to the removal from power of radical representatives of the left and the limitation of the influence of the army.wiki
Greece-Junta of Black Colonels
The doctrine of the
IRA is a nationalist group that has supporters among both the right and
the left. The IRA and its factions refer to the struggle for independence, nationalizationof the IRA and the Catholic religion. From the beginning of the group's
existence, it had a republican character, while from the 50s Marxist tendencies most visible in the 70s and 80s intensified in
it. Currently, the group's doctrine is a bit more pragmatic[1].
Contacts abroad The strongest support for the
IRA was the Irish living in the US. Weapons were obtained from various sources, the most important of which
were supplies from Libya ruled by Mu'ammar al-Gaddafi. The organization also
cooperated with the Basque separatist organization ETA, the Palestine Liberation Organization and the Colombian GUERRILLA FARC
(whose soldiers it trained)[1].
Selected attacks attributed to the IRA (Temporary, unless otherwise stated):
21 July 1972 – "Bloody Friday" – in one day the 22nd bomb exploded in Belfast, killing 9 people
21 November 1974 – explosions in two pubs in Birmingham – 21 killed
September 15, 1976 – A bomb explodes in the British barracks in Newry – 8 soldiers are killed.
27 August 1979 – two bombings in one day – killed: Lord Louis Mountbatten, the last viceroy of India in
the first and 18 British soldiers in the second
12 October 1984 – bomb explosion at the British Conservative Party conference in Brighton – 5
killed, Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher barely escaped with her life
1987 – bomb explosion during a Protestant march in Enniskillen – 11 dead
1991 – mortar shelling of the Prime Minister's office in Downing Street
15 August 1998 – Bombing in Omagh – 31 killed, hundreds wounded (Real IRA – RIRA)wiki
Spain
Struggle for Basque Freedom.
Euskadi Ta Askatasuna – Basque country and Freedom) is a Basque separatist political organization that declares that it will fight for
the independence of basque Country by military means. Widelynot considered a terrorist organisation, including by the European Union
[1] and the United States[2].
Founded on 31 July 1959 by radical activists of the Basque Nationalist Party (PNV); it operates mainly on
the territory of Spain. Since 1968, 858 people have been killed in terrorist attacks attributed to ETA. Among
them, the majority were military, members of the Civil Guard and police officers, and the rest were politicians, judges and prokurators identified
as part of the state apparatus of violence. Among the victims of the organization were also random civilians. On 20
October 2011, ETA announced the definitive end of the armed struggle.
The Basques came under Spanish rule in the sixteenth century. At the end of the nineteenth century, independence tendencies were born
among the nation's representatives, when the central government stripped the Basque bastions of its autonomy privileges. In 1895, the
Basque Nationalist Party was formed, which grew into the main political force of the Basques. During the Spanish Civil War
, the Basque Country became one of the main places of fighting. The war ended with the victory of Francisco Franco,
who introduced repression against the Basque minority. The brutal policies of franco's regime caused a split in the Basque Nationalist Party, as a result of which left-wing students and intellectuals left the party and founded a
more radical groupcalled Euskadi Ta Askatasuna – Basque Country and Freedom.wiki
In Spain, after the experience of the civil war, there was no will for armed conflicts. In the 70s and 80s there was an ideological revolution, a march through the institutions that turned the country to the left.
In 1975, after Franco's death, the Bourbons returned to the throne, specifically the grandson of Alfonso XIII – John Charles I[30].
To the surprise of his compatriots
, he carried out democratization and reforms. The new constitution of 1978 placed Spain among the democratic European countries
. Spain was soon admitted to the EU and NATO. People's rule The parliamentary elections of March 1996 brought changes on the political scene, as the Spanish government ruled for 14 years.
The Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE) succumbed to the People's Party (PP). Jose Maria Aznar became the head of government.[31] The new government
initiated a number of reforms m.in neoliberal economic reforms, reduction of public spending, incentives for
private entrepreneurs. The victory of the right prompted the terrorist organization ETA to intensify terrorist protests
. The culmination of the activity was the murder in July 1997 of the hostage Miguel Angel Blanco. ETA
terrorists carried out a number of bombings in Spain. As a result, Prime Minister Aznar has started negotiations with the Basque separatists[32].
The negotiated truce did not last long, because in January 2000 the etarras admitted to carrying out the attacks for
arresting the rebels. The prime minister also ordered the arrest of members of Herri Batasun's party,
sympathetic to ETA. The next elections in March 2000 were won again by the People's Party, which ensured that Prime Minister Aznar
would extend his cabinet rule[32]. The elections led to increased terrorist activity. The Prime Minister was obliged
to take further counter-terrorism measures and to legalize heria Batasun's party in 2002.
After the attacks on the WTC in 2001, Spain supported
the U.S. strategy for the war on terror and the intervention in Iraq, sending its contingent to Afghanistan and Iraq, which in
Iraku were under Polish command. On March 11, 2004, a terrorist attack took place at the Madrid station.
as a result of which 191 people were killed and over 1800 were injured.[33] Before the upcoming elections, Aznar's government blamed
ETA for the coup[33]. In turn, the investigation indicated that Al-Qaeda was behind the attack[34].
The transition to democracy in Spain (la transición española) is a period in Spanish history from the end of the dictatorship of General
Francisco Franco to the victory of the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE) in the October 1982 elections
Year. Some historians believe that this period began with Franco's death on November 20, 1975, while others believe that
it began with the coronation of John Charles I of Spain, which took place two days later. The transition was
peaceful and the result of an agreement between the political forces of Francoism and the Democratic Opposition.
This process can be divided into two stages: the beginning of democracy (1975-1978) and the consolidation of the system (1979-1982). In 1969
, exhausted by illness, Franco decided to appoint Prince John Charles of the Bourbon dynasty as his successor.
The future ruler seemed to support the general's demeanor, but in reality even before his death.
he began to establish contacts with representatives of the opposition and emigration, who intended to introduce liberal reforms in the country.
After the death of General Francisco Franco, it quickly became apparent that the current policy did not exist without a dictator and that Francoism
would die with him. On November 22, 1975, Prince John Charles ascended the throne, while promising allegiance and loyalty.
Cortes to the National Movement, but from the beginning he showed a tendency towards democracy. TheCommunist leader Santiago
Carrillo called him John Charles the Short (he predicted the rapid end of the Spanish monarchy). He now admits his
mistake, saying that the nickname "insidious" would have been more appropriate:
"I knew from the beginning that the Spanish monarchy had to be democratic, but I didn't know how to achieve it."
said the king a few years after the coronation. In December 1975, the ruler appointed Carlos Arias Navarro as the new President of the
Government. Navarro was present in politics already during the dictatorship and aimed to continue the old system. His
government included reform supporters such as Manuel Fraga Iribarne, José María de Areilza and Antonio Garrigues, the democrat Alfonso
Osorio and the military supporter of the savna system unconditionally - Fernando de Santiago. The situation in the country was not good, numerous strikes were organized (in January 1976 about 6,000 workers started protests in Vitoria, during whichthey
tried to fight for better working conditions), terrorist activities gained strength(armed attack of May 9 from the city of Montejurra,
activities of GRAPO, ETA groups.
On the first of July 1976, the king forced Navarro to resign, accusing him of being unable to carry out the necessary political reforms
and to confront the serious social problems that were plaguing the country. Eight months after his coronation, John
Charles I appointed Adolf Suárez, who had previously been a member of the National Movement for 18 years (after
the dictator's death, he was nominated as the general secretary of the organization). This decision caused protests from the political
forces of the left, but by legalizing the activities of trade unions and political parties, Suárez gained popularity as head of government. The new
prime minister based his policy on two basic assumptions: the drafting of a law that would help introduce political reforms
and the organisation of democratic elections.
The law (La ley para la Reforma Política) was drafted in September 1976 by Fernández Mirand. It was a key document
for the successof the legal ego transition from dictatorship to democracy. It did not specify exactly what the new political system would
look like;
the general election of 15 June 1977 was the first free election in which political parties had participated since
the end of the Spanish Civil War. The union of the Democratic Centre (UCD), led by Suárez, won with
34% of the vote. About 18 million Spaniards took part in the vote. The results show that they focused on
politicians who were looking for compromise solutions. The Suarez government has taken a step towards the creation of autonomous institutions
. The Constitution was approved in December 1978 and was the result of a general consensus between almost
all political parties. It established as a form of state a bicameral parliamentary monarchy, based on
political pluralism, decentralization of the country. The Constitution defined Spain as a social, democratic state,
restoring not only liberal traditions, but also the republican constitution of 1931.
The next elections were ordered for March 1979, the victory was again won by the party of the incumbent Prime Minister During this period,
rights have been granted to the Spanish regions. Over time, Suárez's party began to lose support, as a result of which the PSOE won the elections held on 20 October 1982 and Felipe González became the new prime minister.
At the beginning of the twenty-first century, Spain became one of the most liberal countries in Europe and in the world (society,
once traditionally Catholic, is becoming increasingly secularized). The Socialists (PSOE) won the parliamentary elections, appointing Jose Luis
Rodriguez Zapatero as head of the new government[35]. Zapatero withdrew the Spanish contingent from Iraq and supported the Constitution for Europe.
In domestic politics, socialists carried out a number of reforms, m.in strengthening the social functions of the
state, reforming higher education, civil law laws, legalizing same-sex marriage. Zapatero initiated ''politics''.
historical'', which condemned the period of the Spanish Civil War(1936–1939) and the rule of General Franco. Officially, the Cortes
(parliament) issued a law on national remembrance in 2007. The Socialists adopted a resolution in May 2005 to enter into
negotiations with ETA. In March 2006, ETA issued a statement in which it would ceasethe armed struggle for dialogue[35]. In June
2006, the Zapatero government initiated talks with the separatists, which provoked discontent among Spanish society expressed
through demonstrations and protests. Nevertheless, the dialogue resumed in October 2006 in Oslo. The talks were interrupted by
a terrorist attack on 30 December at Madrid's Barajas airport, in which two people were killed[36]. In June 2006,
Catalonia won autonomy status. The Socialists, despite the failure to solve the Basque problem, the reinterpretationof the tenth-century history and the economic slowdown,
won the next parliamentary elections of 9 May 2008[37]. However, the
2009 European Parliament elections were won by the People's Party with 42.72% of the vote, with 39.33% of the Socialists's support[38].
The 2016
crisis In the December 2015 elections, the people's party in power so far won the most support, but support for it fell.
so much so that it was unable to form a government on its own. Outgoing Prime Minister Mariano Rajoy refused to take on the mission
of forming a government. Also, none of the other three main parties (PSOE, Citizens, Podemos) managed to
form a cabinet. After four months of negotiations, King Philip VI announced early elections in June, with
results similar tothose previously. Mariano Rajoy attempted to form a government, but failed to succeed due to resistance
from Socialist leader Pedro Sánchez[39].
On 17 August 2017, a terrorist attack took place in Barcelona. As a result, 13 people were killed and 130 were injured.
The perpetrators of the attack were Islamic extremists.
A conservative, Catholic country, Spain today escapes a very liberal and left-wing country.
Asia.
Japan
In Japan, students in the early 1960s, and in particular since 1967, demonstrated against the special ties their
country had with the United States after losing World War II. In 1948, under the aegis of the Communist Party, the
Japan Federation of Autonomous Student Associations was formed, and from 1959 it was armed by various rival
factions of the extreme left. In the 1960s, the movement organized demonstrations in Tokyo, opposing President Eisenhower's
visit, and forcingthe prime minister to resign. As U.S. action intensified in Vietnam, demonstrations multiplied, which
became increasingly violent and spectacular. In October and November 1967 there were incidents that were to
prevent the Japanese Prime Minister's visit to Vietnam, and in particular to the United States. At the same time, Japanese society demanded that American soldiers leave Okinawa, where American military bases were located.
In the second half of 1968, workers joined students demonstrating at universities.
During the events in Japan, particular aggression was manifested by well-organized groups, divided into smaller 200-man troops and recognized by the
color of headgear.
Nihon Sekigun; JRA) is a terrorist organization from Japan.
The name
also used the name Anti-Imperialist International Brigades[1].
History
Around 1970 separated from the Japanese Communist League – Red Army Faction[ 2][3]. The group's goal was to
overthrow the Japanese government and monarchy.[2][3] Due to the inability to achieve such far-reaching goals, the group focused on the
issue of Palestine's independence[2]. In February 1971, JRA leaders flew to Lebanon, where they established contacts with
the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP).[2][4] The Palestinians provided the Japanese Communists with shelter and financial assistance
.[2] In the second half of the 90s, the formation was almost completely broken up[2], and most of its leaders were
captured. The terrorists who managed to avoid arrest hid in North Korea.[2][4] In April 2001, the JRA
declared its own dissolution[5].
The group's
major attacks In May 1972, three terrorists attacked Ben Gurion Airport in Israel.[2][3] The attack killed 28 people, including
two assailants.[2]
In July 1973, the Japanese supported PFLP members in the hijacking of a Japan Airlines plane. The plane was hijacked to Libya, where all passengers and crew members were released, but the plane was destroyed by explosives
.[4]
In January 1974, revolutionaries blew up a warehouse at an oil refinery in Singapore.[4]
In September 1974, a detachment of the Japanese Red Army occupied the French embassy in The Hague. The terrorists demanded
the release of japanese communists imprisoned in France. After complying with the demands, the terrorists were transported
to Syria.[2][4]
In August 1975, the terrorists seized the U.S. consulate in Kuala Lumpur, where they took 52 hostages. The extremists managed
to force the release of five militants in Japanese prisons[2][4]. After the occupation of the consulate, the attackers and their freed comrades flew to Libya.[4]
In September 1977,
militants hijacked a Japan Airlines plane. In exchange for the release of the hostages
, six Japanese terrorists were released from prison[2] and a ransom of six million dollars was paid[4].
In May 1986, extremists shelled the buildings of the Japanese, Canadian and US embassies in Jakarta with mortars[4].
In June 1987, the JRA attacked the U.S. and British embassies in Rome.[2]
In April 1988, the American military club in Naples became a target of terrorists[2]. Five people were killed in an
explosive attack[4].
In July 1988, terrorists carried out a bomb attack on the US embassy in Madrid[2].
In addition to these, the group often carried out bomb attacks on Japanese companies[2].
The attacks on American targets in the 80s were presumably carried out at the request of the Libyan government[2].
Foreign
support It was financially supported by Syria, Libya and North Korea[6][7].
At its peak, it had between 30 and 40 members[7].
Ideology
Was a Marxist-Leninist group.[2] It sought to overthrow the Japanese government and monarchy and trigger a world communist revolution
.[3]
China.
The Chinese Civil War (1927–1949) was a civil war between Chinese communists and Kuomintang nationalists that
lasted from August 1927 to October 1949. The course of the war was complicated by the entry into the Republic of China of the
Japanese, who in 1931 occupied Manchuria, and in 1937 attacked central China. Eventually, the opposing sides
united in the fight against the aggressor, and the civil war was halted for nine years.
The war entered a decisive phase after the end of World War II and the surrender of Japan in the summer of 1945. The Communists
gradually gained the upper hand and on October 1, 1949, Mao Zedong proclaimed the founding of the People's Republic
of China in Beijing. This day is considered the formal end of the Chinese Civil War, although fighting lasted until May 1950. The defeatedgovernment of the Republic of China evacuated to Taiwan, along with about 1.5 million of its followers.
1966-1976 Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution (Simplified Chinese: 1966-1976
)
无产阶级文化大革命, chin. trad. 無產階級文化大革命, pinyin wúchǎn
jiējí wénhuà dà gémìng); oftenabbreviated to 文化大革命 (wénhuà dà gémìng, great cultural revolution) or simply 文革
(wéngé, cultural revolution) – a great socio-political movement in China initiated in 1966 by Mao Zedong, as
an attempt to eliminate his political rivals and implement his own ideological concepts (Maoism). Although
it was officially ended by Mao in 1969, it actually lasted until the arrest of the so-called gang of four in 1976. 1966: Mass purges
The extended meeting of the Political Bureau of the Central Committee of the CCP of May 16, 1966 is considered the proper beginning of the Cultural Revolution.
year[1][2]. The Cultural Revolution Group was formed there, which included the most radical party activists
, m.in Jiang Qing, Chen Boda, Kang Sheng, Yao Wenyuan and Zhang Chunqiao.[3] This group, importantly, was not subordinate to
the CCP secretariat, de facto subordinate only to Mao himself.[3] It was announced that the Task of the Group was to fight against
camouflaged anti-socialist bourgeois activists hidden in the party structures[1]. Although the name of
the enemies has not yet taken place, the first purge was carried out on May 18. Peng Zhen was stripped of all
his posts, and with him Yang Shangkun, Lu Dingyi and Lin Biao's main rival in the army, Luo Ruiqing.[1][3]
Events at the Politburo meeting quickly gained a response at universities. On May 25 at Beijing's Beida
University. the first dazibao newspaper with revolutionary slogans appeared.[3] Of greatest importance, however, was the newspaperpublished on May 29
at Tsinghua University, whose authors wore red armbands with the inscription "Red Guard". From then on, students and
young workers began to organize themselves into troops of Red Guards (Hunwejbin), blindly devoted to Mao and preaching
for the need to seize power in universities, in the army and in the party.[3] On June 1, the official CCP newspaper, Renmin Ribao, announced that the dayand
the "enemies" were already numbered.[3]
Terrified Liu Shaoqi tried to stop the rising rebellion by sending special "working groups" to the universities in June and July to cool the revolutionary mood of the Red Guards, but these actions had no effect.[3][2] 5
In August, dazibao appeared containing Mao's famous call to the youth "bomb the staffs", encouraging the
removal of old party activists.[3][1] There were also photos of Mao crossing the Yangtze River to show that the chief, despite his age, is still strong.[3]
On August 1-12, an extraordinary event
was held with the participation of the Red Guards and in the absence of half of the members.
the Central Committee plenum, which removed Liu Shaoqi from the position of party vice-president, appointing Lin Biao to this place.[3] The Plenum
also adopted a 16-point declaration[3], which was the program of the Cultural Revolution. It assumed, m.in, a return to the formation
of popular communes in the countryside.[2]
On August 18, millions of Red Guard members from all over the country gathered in Tian'anmen Square in Beijing for a rally
organized by the Chairman. Mao and Lin Biao appeared to the 11 million Red Guards, receiving applause from the crowd, who at one point began chanting in honor of the Chairman of the wan sui (ten thousand years; this cry
was used in the past to refer to emperors).[3]
Lin Biao encouraged the Red Guards to revolt and fight "old
ideas, culture, customs and customs."[1] By the end of November, 7 more such meetings were held, initially they were also attended by
Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping, who hoped to normalize the situation[1]. Mao has not once addressed the gathering at any of the
rallies.[4]
Since the meeting of the Red Guards with Mao on August 18, the country has plunged into revolutionary chaos.[3] The Red Guards
began by distributing propaganda leaflets and pamphlets and lists of names of alleged counter-revolutionaries, as well as
playing improvised plays with propaganda content. The next step was public smear campaigns against the
"counter-revolutionaries", torture and robbery of their homes. The Red Guards, as part of the fight against the "four old things"
, broke into houses and destroyed all "bourgeois" equipment, such as expensive furniture, books, chess, elegant clothesia,
gramophone records.[3][1] It was also forbidden to sing lullabies to children, fly kites, organize weddings and funerals,
women were cut off their long hair.[3] Bands of Red Guards also robbed museums, destroyed monuments and works of art. In order
to minimize the losses, Prime Minister Zhou Enlai sent troops to surround and defend more important objects such as the Forbidden
City, but theRed Guards managed to destroy m.in city walls of Beijing[3]. Intellectuals were persecuted, students
were encouraged to harass and humiliate teachers,
and Chinese culture completely died out for a few years. Apart from the works of Stalin and Enver Hoxha, foreign
books ceased to appear.[3] Under the auspices of Jiang Qing, the complete destruction of traditional Chinese opera began, trying to replace it
with a new "revolutionary opera". Between 1967 and 1972, no feature film go was made in China.[3]
Groups of hunwejbin moved around the country in order to "exchange experiences", breaking into factories and offices[1]. There were often
clashes with the workers defending the factories[1]. In some cases, even individual Red
Guard groups called each other "counter-revolutionaries."[4] On October 10,
Lin Biao publicly criticized Liu and Deng as capitalist minions. Liu self-criticized, and soon
after he was captured by the Red Guards and taken to an unknown place. It was only years later that it turned out that he died in
1969 on the floor of the prison in Kaifeng, deprived of medical assistance.[3] Peng Dehuai, captured by
the Hunwejbin, was also forced to kneel in front of 40,000 soldiers in the Beijing stadium.[3] Repression and a campaign of
humiliation also affected others, m.in X Panchen Lama Lobsang Chokya Gyaltsen, the wife of Liu Shaoqi Wang Guangmei (considered
a "bourgeois lady" had to walk in a bag and necklace of ping-pong balls) or Deng Xiaoping.[1] The latter was
led with his hands tied through the streets of Beijing and eventually taken to a village in Jiangxi province, where he worked chopping
wood; his son Deng Pufang became crippled after the Red Guards threw him out of a window.[3]
With the Cultural Revolution came a complete freeze in foreign relations, which marked the beginning of the imprisonment of Foreign Minister
Chen Yi. Apart from the representative in Cairo, all Chinese ambassadors were recalled to the country[3].
Foreign diplomats in Beijing were the target of attacks, and the Hunwejbin set fire to the British embassy[3]. Albania remained the only ally of the PRC, and Beijing launched aggressive verbal attacks and insults against other countries (Mongolia
was considered "fascist", Sri Lanka was considered a "jackass", and North Korea was considered "counter-revolutionary"[3]).
Beijing's aggressive stance resulted in the expulsion of Chinese diplomats and experts from 13 African countries, m.in, and a border conflict with the USSR in
1969.[3]
1967: Struggle for political power
At the beginning of 1967, the army was ordered to "support the left", which gave the events in the country almost a civil war
[1].
In January, the process of taking control of local government structures began. Local politicians were removed and subjected to
repression . As new organs of self-government, revolutionary committees were created, consisting mostly of
members of the Red Guard and soldiers[1]. In Shanghai, Chen Boda and Zhang Chunqiao, after a bloody crackdown on the old administration, tried to create the so-called Shanghai Commune based on the community of goods and the revocability of officials;
this experiment ended in failure and was condemned by Mao himself as too far-reaching.[3]
In many places, the previous authorities put up armed resistance, in Sichuan and Guangxi even tanks were used in the struggle for power.
In order to obtain weapons, the Red Guards attacked trains to help the fighting Vietnam.[3] In Beijing, the headquarters of Prime Minister Zhou Enlai, who hid those persecuted by the Red Guard in the Zhongnanhai government complex[3], was
besieged. 3 million party activists were sent to re-education in specially created "May 7 schools"[1].
The turning point was the events in Wuhan at the end of July. When local military commanders allied themselves with a Red Guard detachment not supported by the Cultural Revolution Group, a delegation headed
by Security Minister Xie Fuzhi arrived in
the city. The delegates were arrested and beaten.[3] They were not released until
the next day by troops loyal to Beijing.[3]
The events in Wuhan made Mao aware that things had gone too far, and in August he ordered the military to restore order in
the country.[3] The military was supposed to "support the left, not the factions" and neutralize radical centers. The army smashedthe campuses of the
Red Guard, and its individual units began to be disbanded. About 14 million hunwejbin were sent to work in the countryside.[3]
1968: Cult of Personality
After the crackdown on the Red Guards and the turmoil in the country, the process of consolidation of the rulersby the revolutionaries began,
and Mao himself began to be surrounded by almost divine reverence.
At the Central Committee plenum in October, Liu Shaoqi (who had been in prison for several months) was stripped of all
his posts and expelled from the party.[3]
Vietnam
Vietnam War (also known as the Second Indochina War, the U.S.-American War). The U.S. military operations in
Vietnam were military operations on the Indochina Peninsula from 1955 to 1975. On the one hand, the
communist Democratic Republic of Wietnam (North Vietnam, supported by other socialist countries, mainly the
Soviet Union and China, but also to a lesser extent by some non-socialist countries, e.g. Sweden) was involved in the conflict[2] and supported by to
State communist organizations in South Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia, and on the other hand, the Republic of
Vietnam with an international coalition including the United States and its allies – South Korea, Thailand, Australia,
New Zealand and the Philippines. Against their will, Cambodia and Laos also became parties to the conflict.
Fighting took place on the territory of South Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia. U.S. bombing raids also
covered North Vietnam territory.
Cold War
In the early sixties of the twentieth century, many analysts (e.g., William Bundy, Henry Cabot Lodge, Henry Kissinger, Dean Rusk)
recognized that the countries of the communist bloc would not be able to achieve the standard of living of rich Western countries, which in practice
excluded the possibility of Communist parties ready to join the Eastern Bloc
coming to power in Western countries. The possession by both sides of huge quantities of nuclear weapons basically precluded too aggressive actions that
could lead to a direct confrontation between the United States and the USSR. Strong offensive anddefensive alliances
in Europe meant that any military intervention undertaken on this continent by either side would be too risky.[3]
At the same time,
however, new opportunities were opened up for the USSR and socialist countries such as China and Cuba, as new opportunities were opened up for the USSR. communist ideology
began to gain wide popularity in the Third World countries. Many people in these countries thought that
communism was the best way out of poverty and backwardness quickly. In addition, in countries ruled by postcolonial governments,
very often supported by Great Britain, France or the United States, communism – thanks to material support from
the USSR – became a popular ideology among anti-colonial and national liberation movements[3].
The U.S. government concluded that the USSR and China could win the Cold War by gradually installing
communist governments in most Third World countries. The aggressive involvement of socialist states in the Third
World indicated that they had adopted such a strategy. If such a scenario were to be implemented, Western countries would become
islands surrounded by communist countries and Soviet military bases located on their territories[4].
North Vietnam lost
about 1 million dead
China 1,000.
North Korea killed 14 civilians
killed:
(throughout Vietnam)
up to 2 million killed
250,000 wounded
South Vietnam about 250,000 killed
United States 58,220 killed
153,000 wounded
2413 missing
South Korea 5,000 dead
Philippines 1,000 killed
Australia New Zealand 500 dead
Thailand 351 killed
Revolutionary actions were also carried out in other Asian countries such as Korea and Cambodia, these revolutions led
to a change of government to leftist, a change in economic systems and changes in geopolitical and military forces in the world. These
revolutionary changes in the world since 1949 have also led to many wars and claimed the lives of many millions of
lives.
INTERVIEW WITH DANIEL COHN-BENDIT
(Czerwo When poland and Czechoslovakia fought against the communist dictatorship, in Western countries students in the struggle for
a new left-liberal society thoughtlessly reached for socialist slogans and idealized such genocide as Mao.
The '68 revolt often turned into leftist terrorist activity, to mention the
West German RAF or the Brazilian militias kidnapping foreign diplomats. The year 1968 was politically lost
by the demonstrators, but it wasthe beginning of a real social revolution. In the sphere of values, conservatism (religion,
patriotism, respect for hierarchy and power) has been replaced for good by liberalism (equality, sexual liberation,
feminism, human rights, pacifism). The cultural, social and moral revolution that was taking place at that time is still
present in public conflicts and debates. Grzegorz Kuczyński (http://www.tvn24.pl)
Interview with Daniel Cohn-Bendit May 21, 2008
In '68 we were not only about sex"Daniel Cohn-Bendit: we opened the door and let emotions in - In the rebellion of the youth in
1968 wasn't just about sex. We wanted freedom, about letting in fresh air," Daniel Cohn-Bendit, one of the icons of the student revolt, told tvn24.pl
. 40 years after Paris May, the former "Red Dany" believes that
Radicals have turned the world a plus. The times when Daniel Cohn-Bendit was called the Red Dan belong to the
distant past. And hair color has long ceased to be fierynoruds, and views far from youthful radicalism.
The co-chair of the Green Group in the European Parliament describes himself as a reformist and fights - parliamentarily - for a
"more social and ecological society". The fact that his speeches once captivated crowds of students is only reminded
by the photo that the MEP has on the display of his mobile phone - a widely smiling Red Dany from 40 years ago. The same
photograph that in 1968 was postered all over Paris. Paris May, of which he was one of the main characters, recalls with
fondness, although - as he claims - he did not take part in the quarrels with the police. "It was a revolt of the generation born after
the Second World War, which wanted a different world, a different society, more freeand open," he says in an interview with
tvn24.pl. In France at the time, young radicals challenged, he says, "a hypocritical and inequality-ridden society that discriminates against
women and minorities." "Sex was important, but not the most important" Asked how students were forbidden to enter
female dormitories, he said: "Sex was important, I agree, but it was not about the problem of academics.
Sexual liberation was very important, independence from the Church, from the moral and religious view of these matters -- added Cohn-Bendit
. According to the former leader of the student movement, his greatest success was to show the ossified French
society new opportunities. That is why, in his opinion, the students were joined by workers. "We have opened some
doors. And young factory workers started demonstrations. They also suddenly felt that they wanted to change their lives. It was not our
demands, but the fresh air that we let in and the doors we opened that made them express their own demands,"
Cohn-Bendit said. At the height of the protest, nearly 10 million workers were on strike. The whole of France stood.
Demonstration in the streets of Paris (EPA) Freedom! When asked about the legacy of 1986, Cohn-Bendit says: "He gave personal freedom and
autonomy. He gave freedom to women and geyom. It is a concept of individual autonomy built on the basis of a common struggle. It is
your own, and no one, no Church, no trade union manages it. However, critics accuse the '68 generation
a whole list of sins - with the destruction of the family, morality and religion, the promotion of sex without obligations, relativism and libertinism
at the forefront. What does one of its leading representatives say? "Shit true," Cohn-Bendit replies bluntly.
We have reconstructed it. I am married, we have a child, my wife has a child from her previous relationship
with another man and we have dinner with all the children every week. We have a new form of family solidarity, with much
less hypocrisy, much truer than an old-fashioned family. So it's not true that we destroyed the family, we
created something new, he believes. The barricades grew like yeast (EPA) "I am a born traitor" When asked about the accusations often made
against him that by changing the color from red to green (inthe mid-80s he joined the German Green Party
) he betrayed the ideals of the left, he said with a laugh: - I am a born traitor. I betray everyone. If anyone wants to think so
, there you go. What do I care? He added that the most important thing now is to create a "more egalitarian and
ecological society". Is he still a revolutionary? - That's an empty term. If you want to call me a revolutionary,
I will be a revolutionary. I am fighting in the environmental movement for fundamental reform, for Europe. That is a very important thing, in my opinion,
it is the utopia that we are pursuing - and that is what I am fighting for. If you want to call me a European revolutionary, why not?
IRA is a nationalist group that has supporters among both the right and
the left. The IRA and its factions refer to the struggle for independence, nationalizationof the IRA and the Catholic religion. From the beginning of the group's
existence, it had a republican character, while from the 50s Marxist tendencies most visible in the 70s and 80s intensified in
it. Currently, the group's doctrine is a bit more pragmatic[1].
Contacts abroad The strongest support for the
IRA was the Irish living in the US. Weapons were obtained from various sources, the most important of which
were supplies from Libya ruled by Mu'ammar al-Gaddafi. The organization also
cooperated with the Basque separatist organization ETA, the Palestine Liberation Organization and the Colombian GUERRILLA FARC
(whose soldiers it trained)[1].
Selected attacks attributed to the IRA (Temporary, unless otherwise stated):
21 July 1972 – "Bloody Friday" – in one day the 22nd bomb exploded in Belfast, killing 9 people
21 November 1974 – explosions in two pubs in Birmingham – 21 killed
September 15, 1976 – A bomb explodes in the British barracks in Newry – 8 soldiers are killed.
27 August 1979 – two bombings in one day – killed: Lord Louis Mountbatten, the last viceroy of India in
the first and 18 British soldiers in the second
12 October 1984 – bomb explosion at the British Conservative Party conference in Brighton – 5
killed, Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher barely escaped with her life
1987 – bomb explosion during a Protestant march in Enniskillen – 11 dead
1991 – mortar shelling of the Prime Minister's office in Downing Street
15 August 1998 – Bombing in Omagh – 31 killed, hundreds wounded (Real IRA – RIRA)wiki
Spain
Struggle for Basque Freedom.
Euskadi Ta Askatasuna – Basque country and Freedom) is a Basque separatist political organization that declares that it will fight for
the independence of basque Country by military means. Widelynot considered a terrorist organisation, including by the European Union
[1] and the United States[2].
Founded on 31 July 1959 by radical activists of the Basque Nationalist Party (PNV); it operates mainly on
the territory of Spain. Since 1968, 858 people have been killed in terrorist attacks attributed to ETA. Among
them, the majority were military, members of the Civil Guard and police officers, and the rest were politicians, judges and prokurators identified
as part of the state apparatus of violence. Among the victims of the organization were also random civilians. On 20
October 2011, ETA announced the definitive end of the armed struggle.
The Basques came under Spanish rule in the sixteenth century. At the end of the nineteenth century, independence tendencies were born
among the nation's representatives, when the central government stripped the Basque bastions of its autonomy privileges. In 1895, the
Basque Nationalist Party was formed, which grew into the main political force of the Basques. During the Spanish Civil War
, the Basque Country became one of the main places of fighting. The war ended with the victory of Francisco Franco,
who introduced repression against the Basque minority. The brutal policies of franco's regime caused a split in the Basque Nationalist Party, as a result of which left-wing students and intellectuals left the party and founded a
more radical groupcalled Euskadi Ta Askatasuna – Basque Country and Freedom.wiki
In Spain, after the experience of the civil war, there was no will for armed conflicts. In the 70s and 80s there was an ideological revolution, a march through the institutions that turned the country to the left.
In 1975, after Franco's death, the Bourbons returned to the throne, specifically the grandson of Alfonso XIII – John Charles I[30].
To the surprise of his compatriots
, he carried out democratization and reforms. The new constitution of 1978 placed Spain among the democratic European countries
. Spain was soon admitted to the EU and NATO. People's rule The parliamentary elections of March 1996 brought changes on the political scene, as the Spanish government ruled for 14 years.
The Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE) succumbed to the People's Party (PP). Jose Maria Aznar became the head of government.[31] The new government
initiated a number of reforms m.in neoliberal economic reforms, reduction of public spending, incentives for
private entrepreneurs. The victory of the right prompted the terrorist organization ETA to intensify terrorist protests
. The culmination of the activity was the murder in July 1997 of the hostage Miguel Angel Blanco. ETA
terrorists carried out a number of bombings in Spain. As a result, Prime Minister Aznar has started negotiations with the Basque separatists[32].
The negotiated truce did not last long, because in January 2000 the etarras admitted to carrying out the attacks for
arresting the rebels. The prime minister also ordered the arrest of members of Herri Batasun's party,
sympathetic to ETA. The next elections in March 2000 were won again by the People's Party, which ensured that Prime Minister Aznar
would extend his cabinet rule[32]. The elections led to increased terrorist activity. The Prime Minister was obliged
to take further counter-terrorism measures and to legalize heria Batasun's party in 2002.
After the attacks on the WTC in 2001, Spain supported
the U.S. strategy for the war on terror and the intervention in Iraq, sending its contingent to Afghanistan and Iraq, which in
Iraku were under Polish command. On March 11, 2004, a terrorist attack took place at the Madrid station.
as a result of which 191 people were killed and over 1800 were injured.[33] Before the upcoming elections, Aznar's government blamed
ETA for the coup[33]. In turn, the investigation indicated that Al-Qaeda was behind the attack[34].
The transition to democracy in Spain (la transición española) is a period in Spanish history from the end of the dictatorship of General
Francisco Franco to the victory of the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE) in the October 1982 elections
Year. Some historians believe that this period began with Franco's death on November 20, 1975, while others believe that
it began with the coronation of John Charles I of Spain, which took place two days later. The transition was
peaceful and the result of an agreement between the political forces of Francoism and the Democratic Opposition.
This process can be divided into two stages: the beginning of democracy (1975-1978) and the consolidation of the system (1979-1982). In 1969
, exhausted by illness, Franco decided to appoint Prince John Charles of the Bourbon dynasty as his successor.
The future ruler seemed to support the general's demeanor, but in reality even before his death.
he began to establish contacts with representatives of the opposition and emigration, who intended to introduce liberal reforms in the country.
After the death of General Francisco Franco, it quickly became apparent that the current policy did not exist without a dictator and that Francoism
would die with him. On November 22, 1975, Prince John Charles ascended the throne, while promising allegiance and loyalty.
Cortes to the National Movement, but from the beginning he showed a tendency towards democracy. TheCommunist leader Santiago
Carrillo called him John Charles the Short (he predicted the rapid end of the Spanish monarchy). He now admits his
mistake, saying that the nickname "insidious" would have been more appropriate:
"I knew from the beginning that the Spanish monarchy had to be democratic, but I didn't know how to achieve it."
said the king a few years after the coronation. In December 1975, the ruler appointed Carlos Arias Navarro as the new President of the
Government. Navarro was present in politics already during the dictatorship and aimed to continue the old system. His
government included reform supporters such as Manuel Fraga Iribarne, José María de Areilza and Antonio Garrigues, the democrat Alfonso
Osorio and the military supporter of the savna system unconditionally - Fernando de Santiago. The situation in the country was not good, numerous strikes were organized (in January 1976 about 6,000 workers started protests in Vitoria, during whichthey
tried to fight for better working conditions), terrorist activities gained strength(armed attack of May 9 from the city of Montejurra,
activities of GRAPO, ETA groups.
On the first of July 1976, the king forced Navarro to resign, accusing him of being unable to carry out the necessary political reforms
and to confront the serious social problems that were plaguing the country. Eight months after his coronation, John
Charles I appointed Adolf Suárez, who had previously been a member of the National Movement for 18 years (after
the dictator's death, he was nominated as the general secretary of the organization). This decision caused protests from the political
forces of the left, but by legalizing the activities of trade unions and political parties, Suárez gained popularity as head of government. The new
prime minister based his policy on two basic assumptions: the drafting of a law that would help introduce political reforms
and the organisation of democratic elections.
The law (La ley para la Reforma Política) was drafted in September 1976 by Fernández Mirand. It was a key document
for the successof the legal ego transition from dictatorship to democracy. It did not specify exactly what the new political system would
look like;
the general election of 15 June 1977 was the first free election in which political parties had participated since
the end of the Spanish Civil War. The union of the Democratic Centre (UCD), led by Suárez, won with
34% of the vote. About 18 million Spaniards took part in the vote. The results show that they focused on
politicians who were looking for compromise solutions. The Suarez government has taken a step towards the creation of autonomous institutions
. The Constitution was approved in December 1978 and was the result of a general consensus between almost
all political parties. It established as a form of state a bicameral parliamentary monarchy, based on
political pluralism, decentralization of the country. The Constitution defined Spain as a social, democratic state,
restoring not only liberal traditions, but also the republican constitution of 1931.
The next elections were ordered for March 1979, the victory was again won by the party of the incumbent Prime Minister During this period,
rights have been granted to the Spanish regions. Over time, Suárez's party began to lose support, as a result of which the PSOE won the elections held on 20 October 1982 and Felipe González became the new prime minister.
At the beginning of the twenty-first century, Spain became one of the most liberal countries in Europe and in the world (society,
once traditionally Catholic, is becoming increasingly secularized). The Socialists (PSOE) won the parliamentary elections, appointing Jose Luis
Rodriguez Zapatero as head of the new government[35]. Zapatero withdrew the Spanish contingent from Iraq and supported the Constitution for Europe.
In domestic politics, socialists carried out a number of reforms, m.in strengthening the social functions of the
state, reforming higher education, civil law laws, legalizing same-sex marriage. Zapatero initiated ''politics''.
historical'', which condemned the period of the Spanish Civil War(1936–1939) and the rule of General Franco. Officially, the Cortes
(parliament) issued a law on national remembrance in 2007. The Socialists adopted a resolution in May 2005 to enter into
negotiations with ETA. In March 2006, ETA issued a statement in which it would ceasethe armed struggle for dialogue[35]. In June
2006, the Zapatero government initiated talks with the separatists, which provoked discontent among Spanish society expressed
through demonstrations and protests. Nevertheless, the dialogue resumed in October 2006 in Oslo. The talks were interrupted by
a terrorist attack on 30 December at Madrid's Barajas airport, in which two people were killed[36]. In June 2006,
Catalonia won autonomy status. The Socialists, despite the failure to solve the Basque problem, the reinterpretationof the tenth-century history and the economic slowdown,
won the next parliamentary elections of 9 May 2008[37]. However, the
2009 European Parliament elections were won by the People's Party with 42.72% of the vote, with 39.33% of the Socialists's support[38].
The 2016
crisis In the December 2015 elections, the people's party in power so far won the most support, but support for it fell.
so much so that it was unable to form a government on its own. Outgoing Prime Minister Mariano Rajoy refused to take on the mission
of forming a government. Also, none of the other three main parties (PSOE, Citizens, Podemos) managed to
form a cabinet. After four months of negotiations, King Philip VI announced early elections in June, with
results similar tothose previously. Mariano Rajoy attempted to form a government, but failed to succeed due to resistance
from Socialist leader Pedro Sánchez[39].
On 17 August 2017, a terrorist attack took place in Barcelona. As a result, 13 people were killed and 130 were injured.
The perpetrators of the attack were Islamic extremists.
A conservative, Catholic country, Spain today escapes a very liberal and left-wing country.
Asia.
Japan
In Japan, students in the early 1960s, and in particular since 1967, demonstrated against the special ties their
country had with the United States after losing World War II. In 1948, under the aegis of the Communist Party, the
Japan Federation of Autonomous Student Associations was formed, and from 1959 it was armed by various rival
factions of the extreme left. In the 1960s, the movement organized demonstrations in Tokyo, opposing President Eisenhower's
visit, and forcingthe prime minister to resign. As U.S. action intensified in Vietnam, demonstrations multiplied, which
became increasingly violent and spectacular. In October and November 1967 there were incidents that were to
prevent the Japanese Prime Minister's visit to Vietnam, and in particular to the United States. At the same time, Japanese society demanded that American soldiers leave Okinawa, where American military bases were located.
In the second half of 1968, workers joined students demonstrating at universities.
During the events in Japan, particular aggression was manifested by well-organized groups, divided into smaller 200-man troops and recognized by the
color of headgear.
Nihon Sekigun; JRA) is a terrorist organization from Japan.
The name
also used the name Anti-Imperialist International Brigades[1].
History
Around 1970 separated from the Japanese Communist League – Red Army Faction[ 2][3]. The group's goal was to
overthrow the Japanese government and monarchy.[2][3] Due to the inability to achieve such far-reaching goals, the group focused on the
issue of Palestine's independence[2]. In February 1971, JRA leaders flew to Lebanon, where they established contacts with
the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP).[2][4] The Palestinians provided the Japanese Communists with shelter and financial assistance
.[2] In the second half of the 90s, the formation was almost completely broken up[2], and most of its leaders were
captured. The terrorists who managed to avoid arrest hid in North Korea.[2][4] In April 2001, the JRA
declared its own dissolution[5].
The group's
major attacks In May 1972, three terrorists attacked Ben Gurion Airport in Israel.[2][3] The attack killed 28 people, including
two assailants.[2]
In July 1973, the Japanese supported PFLP members in the hijacking of a Japan Airlines plane. The plane was hijacked to Libya, where all passengers and crew members were released, but the plane was destroyed by explosives
.[4]
In January 1974, revolutionaries blew up a warehouse at an oil refinery in Singapore.[4]
In September 1974, a detachment of the Japanese Red Army occupied the French embassy in The Hague. The terrorists demanded
the release of japanese communists imprisoned in France. After complying with the demands, the terrorists were transported
to Syria.[2][4]
In August 1975, the terrorists seized the U.S. consulate in Kuala Lumpur, where they took 52 hostages. The extremists managed
to force the release of five militants in Japanese prisons[2][4]. After the occupation of the consulate, the attackers and their freed comrades flew to Libya.[4]
In September 1977,
militants hijacked a Japan Airlines plane. In exchange for the release of the hostages
, six Japanese terrorists were released from prison[2] and a ransom of six million dollars was paid[4].
In May 1986, extremists shelled the buildings of the Japanese, Canadian and US embassies in Jakarta with mortars[4].
In June 1987, the JRA attacked the U.S. and British embassies in Rome.[2]
In April 1988, the American military club in Naples became a target of terrorists[2]. Five people were killed in an
explosive attack[4].
In July 1988, terrorists carried out a bomb attack on the US embassy in Madrid[2].
In addition to these, the group often carried out bomb attacks on Japanese companies[2].
The attacks on American targets in the 80s were presumably carried out at the request of the Libyan government[2].
Foreign
support It was financially supported by Syria, Libya and North Korea[6][7].
At its peak, it had between 30 and 40 members[7].
Ideology
Was a Marxist-Leninist group.[2] It sought to overthrow the Japanese government and monarchy and trigger a world communist revolution
.[3]
China.
The Chinese Civil War (1927–1949) was a civil war between Chinese communists and Kuomintang nationalists that
lasted from August 1927 to October 1949. The course of the war was complicated by the entry into the Republic of China of the
Japanese, who in 1931 occupied Manchuria, and in 1937 attacked central China. Eventually, the opposing sides
united in the fight against the aggressor, and the civil war was halted for nine years.
The war entered a decisive phase after the end of World War II and the surrender of Japan in the summer of 1945. The Communists
gradually gained the upper hand and on October 1, 1949, Mao Zedong proclaimed the founding of the People's Republic
of China in Beijing. This day is considered the formal end of the Chinese Civil War, although fighting lasted until May 1950. The defeatedgovernment of the Republic of China evacuated to Taiwan, along with about 1.5 million of its followers.
1966-1976 Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution (Simplified Chinese: 1966-1976
)
无产阶级文化大革命, chin. trad. 無產階級文化大革命, pinyin wúchǎn
jiējí wénhuà dà gémìng); oftenabbreviated to 文化大革命 (wénhuà dà gémìng, great cultural revolution) or simply 文革
(wéngé, cultural revolution) – a great socio-political movement in China initiated in 1966 by Mao Zedong, as
an attempt to eliminate his political rivals and implement his own ideological concepts (Maoism). Although
it was officially ended by Mao in 1969, it actually lasted until the arrest of the so-called gang of four in 1976. 1966: Mass purges
The extended meeting of the Political Bureau of the Central Committee of the CCP of May 16, 1966 is considered the proper beginning of the Cultural Revolution.
year[1][2]. The Cultural Revolution Group was formed there, which included the most radical party activists
, m.in Jiang Qing, Chen Boda, Kang Sheng, Yao Wenyuan and Zhang Chunqiao.[3] This group, importantly, was not subordinate to
the CCP secretariat, de facto subordinate only to Mao himself.[3] It was announced that the Task of the Group was to fight against
camouflaged anti-socialist bourgeois activists hidden in the party structures[1]. Although the name of
the enemies has not yet taken place, the first purge was carried out on May 18. Peng Zhen was stripped of all
his posts, and with him Yang Shangkun, Lu Dingyi and Lin Biao's main rival in the army, Luo Ruiqing.[1][3]
Events at the Politburo meeting quickly gained a response at universities. On May 25 at Beijing's Beida
University. the first dazibao newspaper with revolutionary slogans appeared.[3] Of greatest importance, however, was the newspaperpublished on May 29
at Tsinghua University, whose authors wore red armbands with the inscription "Red Guard". From then on, students and
young workers began to organize themselves into troops of Red Guards (Hunwejbin), blindly devoted to Mao and preaching
for the need to seize power in universities, in the army and in the party.[3] On June 1, the official CCP newspaper, Renmin Ribao, announced that the dayand
the "enemies" were already numbered.[3]
Terrified Liu Shaoqi tried to stop the rising rebellion by sending special "working groups" to the universities in June and July to cool the revolutionary mood of the Red Guards, but these actions had no effect.[3][2] 5
In August, dazibao appeared containing Mao's famous call to the youth "bomb the staffs", encouraging the
removal of old party activists.[3][1] There were also photos of Mao crossing the Yangtze River to show that the chief, despite his age, is still strong.[3]
On August 1-12, an extraordinary event
was held with the participation of the Red Guards and in the absence of half of the members.
the Central Committee plenum, which removed Liu Shaoqi from the position of party vice-president, appointing Lin Biao to this place.[3] The Plenum
also adopted a 16-point declaration[3], which was the program of the Cultural Revolution. It assumed, m.in, a return to the formation
of popular communes in the countryside.[2]
On August 18, millions of Red Guard members from all over the country gathered in Tian'anmen Square in Beijing for a rally
organized by the Chairman. Mao and Lin Biao appeared to the 11 million Red Guards, receiving applause from the crowd, who at one point began chanting in honor of the Chairman of the wan sui (ten thousand years; this cry
was used in the past to refer to emperors).[3]
Lin Biao encouraged the Red Guards to revolt and fight "old
ideas, culture, customs and customs."[1] By the end of November, 7 more such meetings were held, initially they were also attended by
Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping, who hoped to normalize the situation[1]. Mao has not once addressed the gathering at any of the
rallies.[4]
Since the meeting of the Red Guards with Mao on August 18, the country has plunged into revolutionary chaos.[3] The Red Guards
began by distributing propaganda leaflets and pamphlets and lists of names of alleged counter-revolutionaries, as well as
playing improvised plays with propaganda content. The next step was public smear campaigns against the
"counter-revolutionaries", torture and robbery of their homes. The Red Guards, as part of the fight against the "four old things"
, broke into houses and destroyed all "bourgeois" equipment, such as expensive furniture, books, chess, elegant clothesia,
gramophone records.[3][1] It was also forbidden to sing lullabies to children, fly kites, organize weddings and funerals,
women were cut off their long hair.[3] Bands of Red Guards also robbed museums, destroyed monuments and works of art. In order
to minimize the losses, Prime Minister Zhou Enlai sent troops to surround and defend more important objects such as the Forbidden
City, but theRed Guards managed to destroy m.in city walls of Beijing[3]. Intellectuals were persecuted, students
were encouraged to harass and humiliate teachers,
and Chinese culture completely died out for a few years. Apart from the works of Stalin and Enver Hoxha, foreign
books ceased to appear.[3] Under the auspices of Jiang Qing, the complete destruction of traditional Chinese opera began, trying to replace it
with a new "revolutionary opera". Between 1967 and 1972, no feature film go was made in China.[3]
Groups of hunwejbin moved around the country in order to "exchange experiences", breaking into factories and offices[1]. There were often
clashes with the workers defending the factories[1]. In some cases, even individual Red
Guard groups called each other "counter-revolutionaries."[4] On October 10,
Lin Biao publicly criticized Liu and Deng as capitalist minions. Liu self-criticized, and soon
after he was captured by the Red Guards and taken to an unknown place. It was only years later that it turned out that he died in
1969 on the floor of the prison in Kaifeng, deprived of medical assistance.[3] Peng Dehuai, captured by
the Hunwejbin, was also forced to kneel in front of 40,000 soldiers in the Beijing stadium.[3] Repression and a campaign of
humiliation also affected others, m.in X Panchen Lama Lobsang Chokya Gyaltsen, the wife of Liu Shaoqi Wang Guangmei (considered
a "bourgeois lady" had to walk in a bag and necklace of ping-pong balls) or Deng Xiaoping.[1] The latter was
led with his hands tied through the streets of Beijing and eventually taken to a village in Jiangxi province, where he worked chopping
wood; his son Deng Pufang became crippled after the Red Guards threw him out of a window.[3]
With the Cultural Revolution came a complete freeze in foreign relations, which marked the beginning of the imprisonment of Foreign Minister
Chen Yi. Apart from the representative in Cairo, all Chinese ambassadors were recalled to the country[3].
Foreign diplomats in Beijing were the target of attacks, and the Hunwejbin set fire to the British embassy[3]. Albania remained the only ally of the PRC, and Beijing launched aggressive verbal attacks and insults against other countries (Mongolia
was considered "fascist", Sri Lanka was considered a "jackass", and North Korea was considered "counter-revolutionary"[3]).
Beijing's aggressive stance resulted in the expulsion of Chinese diplomats and experts from 13 African countries, m.in, and a border conflict with the USSR in
1969.[3]
1967: Struggle for political power
At the beginning of 1967, the army was ordered to "support the left", which gave the events in the country almost a civil war
[1].
In January, the process of taking control of local government structures began. Local politicians were removed and subjected to
repression . As new organs of self-government, revolutionary committees were created, consisting mostly of
members of the Red Guard and soldiers[1]. In Shanghai, Chen Boda and Zhang Chunqiao, after a bloody crackdown on the old administration, tried to create the so-called Shanghai Commune based on the community of goods and the revocability of officials;
this experiment ended in failure and was condemned by Mao himself as too far-reaching.[3]
In many places, the previous authorities put up armed resistance, in Sichuan and Guangxi even tanks were used in the struggle for power.
In order to obtain weapons, the Red Guards attacked trains to help the fighting Vietnam.[3] In Beijing, the headquarters of Prime Minister Zhou Enlai, who hid those persecuted by the Red Guard in the Zhongnanhai government complex[3], was
besieged. 3 million party activists were sent to re-education in specially created "May 7 schools"[1].
The turning point was the events in Wuhan at the end of July. When local military commanders allied themselves with a Red Guard detachment not supported by the Cultural Revolution Group, a delegation headed
by Security Minister Xie Fuzhi arrived in
the city. The delegates were arrested and beaten.[3] They were not released until
the next day by troops loyal to Beijing.[3]
The events in Wuhan made Mao aware that things had gone too far, and in August he ordered the military to restore order in
the country.[3] The military was supposed to "support the left, not the factions" and neutralize radical centers. The army smashedthe campuses of the
Red Guard, and its individual units began to be disbanded. About 14 million hunwejbin were sent to work in the countryside.[3]
1968: Cult of Personality
After the crackdown on the Red Guards and the turmoil in the country, the process of consolidation of the rulersby the revolutionaries began,
and Mao himself began to be surrounded by almost divine reverence.
At the Central Committee plenum in October, Liu Shaoqi (who had been in prison for several months) was stripped of all
his posts and expelled from the party.[3]
Vietnam
Vietnam War (also known as the Second Indochina War, the U.S.-American War). The U.S. military operations in
Vietnam were military operations on the Indochina Peninsula from 1955 to 1975. On the one hand, the
communist Democratic Republic of Wietnam (North Vietnam, supported by other socialist countries, mainly the
Soviet Union and China, but also to a lesser extent by some non-socialist countries, e.g. Sweden) was involved in the conflict[2] and supported by to
State communist organizations in South Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia, and on the other hand, the Republic of
Vietnam with an international coalition including the United States and its allies – South Korea, Thailand, Australia,
New Zealand and the Philippines. Against their will, Cambodia and Laos also became parties to the conflict.
Fighting took place on the territory of South Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia. U.S. bombing raids also
covered North Vietnam territory.
Cold War
In the early sixties of the twentieth century, many analysts (e.g., William Bundy, Henry Cabot Lodge, Henry Kissinger, Dean Rusk)
recognized that the countries of the communist bloc would not be able to achieve the standard of living of rich Western countries, which in practice
excluded the possibility of Communist parties ready to join the Eastern Bloc
coming to power in Western countries. The possession by both sides of huge quantities of nuclear weapons basically precluded too aggressive actions that
could lead to a direct confrontation between the United States and the USSR. Strong offensive anddefensive alliances
in Europe meant that any military intervention undertaken on this continent by either side would be too risky.[3]
At the same time,
however, new opportunities were opened up for the USSR and socialist countries such as China and Cuba, as new opportunities were opened up for the USSR. communist ideology
began to gain wide popularity in the Third World countries. Many people in these countries thought that
communism was the best way out of poverty and backwardness quickly. In addition, in countries ruled by postcolonial governments,
very often supported by Great Britain, France or the United States, communism – thanks to material support from
the USSR – became a popular ideology among anti-colonial and national liberation movements[3].
The U.S. government concluded that the USSR and China could win the Cold War by gradually installing
communist governments in most Third World countries. The aggressive involvement of socialist states in the Third
World indicated that they had adopted such a strategy. If such a scenario were to be implemented, Western countries would become
islands surrounded by communist countries and Soviet military bases located on their territories[4].
North Vietnam lost
about 1 million dead
China 1,000.
North Korea killed 14 civilians
killed:
(throughout Vietnam)
up to 2 million killed
250,000 wounded
South Vietnam about 250,000 killed
United States 58,220 killed
153,000 wounded
2413 missing
South Korea 5,000 dead
Philippines 1,000 killed
Australia New Zealand 500 dead
Thailand 351 killed
Revolutionary actions were also carried out in other Asian countries such as Korea and Cambodia, these revolutions led
to a change of government to leftist, a change in economic systems and changes in geopolitical and military forces in the world. These
revolutionary changes in the world since 1949 have also led to many wars and claimed the lives of many millions of
lives.
INTERVIEW WITH DANIEL COHN-BENDIT
(Czerwo When poland and Czechoslovakia fought against the communist dictatorship, in Western countries students in the struggle for
a new left-liberal society thoughtlessly reached for socialist slogans and idealized such genocide as Mao.
The '68 revolt often turned into leftist terrorist activity, to mention the
West German RAF or the Brazilian militias kidnapping foreign diplomats. The year 1968 was politically lost
by the demonstrators, but it wasthe beginning of a real social revolution. In the sphere of values, conservatism (religion,
patriotism, respect for hierarchy and power) has been replaced for good by liberalism (equality, sexual liberation,
feminism, human rights, pacifism). The cultural, social and moral revolution that was taking place at that time is still
present in public conflicts and debates. Grzegorz Kuczyński (http://www.tvn24.pl)
Interview with Daniel Cohn-Bendit May 21, 2008
In '68 we were not only about sex"Daniel Cohn-Bendit: we opened the door and let emotions in - In the rebellion of the youth in
1968 wasn't just about sex. We wanted freedom, about letting in fresh air," Daniel Cohn-Bendit, one of the icons of the student revolt, told tvn24.pl
. 40 years after Paris May, the former "Red Dany" believes that
Radicals have turned the world a plus. The times when Daniel Cohn-Bendit was called the Red Dan belong to the
distant past. And hair color has long ceased to be fierynoruds, and views far from youthful radicalism.
The co-chair of the Green Group in the European Parliament describes himself as a reformist and fights - parliamentarily - for a
"more social and ecological society". The fact that his speeches once captivated crowds of students is only reminded
by the photo that the MEP has on the display of his mobile phone - a widely smiling Red Dany from 40 years ago. The same
photograph that in 1968 was postered all over Paris. Paris May, of which he was one of the main characters, recalls with
fondness, although - as he claims - he did not take part in the quarrels with the police. "It was a revolt of the generation born after
the Second World War, which wanted a different world, a different society, more freeand open," he says in an interview with
tvn24.pl. In France at the time, young radicals challenged, he says, "a hypocritical and inequality-ridden society that discriminates against
women and minorities." "Sex was important, but not the most important" Asked how students were forbidden to enter
female dormitories, he said: "Sex was important, I agree, but it was not about the problem of academics.
Sexual liberation was very important, independence from the Church, from the moral and religious view of these matters -- added Cohn-Bendit
. According to the former leader of the student movement, his greatest success was to show the ossified French
society new opportunities. That is why, in his opinion, the students were joined by workers. "We have opened some
doors. And young factory workers started demonstrations. They also suddenly felt that they wanted to change their lives. It was not our
demands, but the fresh air that we let in and the doors we opened that made them express their own demands,"
Cohn-Bendit said. At the height of the protest, nearly 10 million workers were on strike. The whole of France stood.
Demonstration in the streets of Paris (EPA) Freedom! When asked about the legacy of 1986, Cohn-Bendit says: "He gave personal freedom and
autonomy. He gave freedom to women and geyom. It is a concept of individual autonomy built on the basis of a common struggle. It is
your own, and no one, no Church, no trade union manages it. However, critics accuse the '68 generation
a whole list of sins - with the destruction of the family, morality and religion, the promotion of sex without obligations, relativism and libertinism
at the forefront. What does one of its leading representatives say? "Shit true," Cohn-Bendit replies bluntly.
We have reconstructed it. I am married, we have a child, my wife has a child from her previous relationship
with another man and we have dinner with all the children every week. We have a new form of family solidarity, with much
less hypocrisy, much truer than an old-fashioned family. So it's not true that we destroyed the family, we
created something new, he believes. The barricades grew like yeast (EPA) "I am a born traitor" When asked about the accusations often made
against him that by changing the color from red to green (inthe mid-80s he joined the German Green Party
) he betrayed the ideals of the left, he said with a laugh: - I am a born traitor. I betray everyone. If anyone wants to think so
, there you go. What do I care? He added that the most important thing now is to create a "more egalitarian and
ecological society". Is he still a revolutionary? - That's an empty term. If you want to call me a revolutionary,
I will be a revolutionary. I am fighting in the environmental movement for fundamental reform, for Europe. That is a very important thing, in my opinion,
it is the utopia that we are pursuing - and that is what I am fighting for. If you want to call me a European revolutionary, why not?
Some formatting was lost in this translation of a document from the original Polish. Hopefully it is complete. 7/31/2022
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